Syphilis, one of history’s most feared and misunderstood diseases, has left an indelible mark not only on human health but on history and archaeology as well. From infamous sufferers like Al Capone and Vladimir Lenin to countless unnamed victims across the centuries, this sexually transmitted infection (STI) has shaped societies worldwide. Thanks to the work of archaeologists and historians, we now have a clearer picture of its origins, evolution, and social impact—often revealed through striking archaeological clues.

What is Syphilis?

Syphilis is caused by the corkscrew-shaped bacterium Treponema pallidum. Primarily transmitted through sexual contact, it can also be passed congenitally from mother to fetus, sometimes resulting in death or severe infection at birth. Known historically as “the great pretender,” syphilis mimics various other diseases, which made it notoriously difficult to diagnose before modern medicine.

The infection progresses through three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary syphilis. Early stages involve sores and rashes, while tertiary syphilis brings devastating consequences such as tissue damage, neurological decline, and even death. Importantly for archaeology, the secondary and tertiary stages often attack bones—particularly the tibia, sternum, clavicles, and skull—leaving distinctive “moth-eaten” lesions that endure for millennia.

Archaeology Unlocks the Past

These skeletal clues are invaluable to scientists trying to piece together syphilis’s historical timeline and geographic origins. One major debate surrounds whether syphilis began in the Old World or the New World. The prevailing hypothesis suggests syphilis originated in the Americas and spread to Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia during the Age of Exploration in the 1400s and 1500s. Evidence supporting this includes early cases identified from a child’s skeletal remains in Brazil, dating back approximately 9,400 years, showing signs of congenital syphilis.

Moreover, the first recorded European syphilis epidemic struck during Charles VIII’s invasion of Naples in 1495, reportedly devastating French troops. Historical medical texts and descriptions exhibit horror at the disease’s symptoms and rapid spread. Europe’s early encounters with syphilis were so profound that the disease was variously named after foreign enemies—“French sickness” in some countries, the “Polish disease” in Russia, and so on—revealing the deep stigma already attached to the infection.

Syphilis’s Global Footprint Through Archaeology

Archaeological studies have confirmed syphilis outbreaks far from Europe’s epicenter. For instance, a cemetery in eastern Iceland showed evidence of a syphilis epidemic from 1496 to 1554, demonstrating the disease’s reach to even isolated regions. In England during the late 18th century, nearly a third of patients admitted to London hospitals suffered from STIs, predominantly syphilis.

In Bologna, Italy, skeletal remains from a medieval Jewish cemetery revealed about 400 individuals with bone damage associated with tertiary syphilis. This discovery sheds light on the interplay between disease outbreaks and prevailing social biases, as Jewish communities at the time faced marginalization and scapegoating.

Asian and African archaeological records remain sparser but notable. For example, researchers uncovered tertiary-stage syphilis in 19th-century skeletons near Seoul, South Korea, demonstrating the disease’s global distribution. Meanwhile, Mexican cemeteries from the 17th century further reveal the persistent presence and evolution of the bacterium responsible for syphilis.

The Archaeology of Treatment: Mercury’s Toxic Legacy

Before the discovery of penicillin in the 1940s, syphilis treatments were often more harmful than the disease itself. Mercury, a highly toxic heavy metal, was commonly used from the 16th through the 19th centuries despite its devastating side effects, such as kidney damage, tremors, and exhaustion. Archaeologists have been able to detect mercury residues in bone and soil samples from sites associated with syphilis patients.

For example, a medieval cemetery in Denmark revealed that 40 percent of syphilis cases were treated with mercury. Even monks who cared for the sick experienced mercury poisoning, underscoring the widespread use and dangers of this archaic therapy. These findings show how medical practices of the past contribute to the archaeological record just as much as the disease itself.

Syphilis, Stigma, and Society

Syphilis has long been intertwined with social prejudices. Since the 1800s, those afflicted—especially women, people of color, and marginalized communities—were often deemed immoral or “unclean.” The disease’s social stigma was amplified by cultural beliefs that it was contracted only by the promiscuous. Public health campaigns predominantly targeted “loose women,” reinforcing dangerous stereotypes and perpetuating misogyny.

The name “venereal disease” itself derives from Venus, the Roman goddess of love, symbolizing the association between sexual activity and infection. This legacy of blame continues to affect STI treatment accessibility, which remains limited for many underserved populations worldwide.

Broader Lessons from Syphilis Archaeology

The archaeological study of syphilis not only reveals the biological history of a devastating disease but also sheds light on how societies have responded to illness through time—often in ways intertwined with classism, racism, and gender bias. From bone lesions preserving a tale of infection thousands of years old to mercury-tainted graves and stigmatizing cultural narratives, the history of syphilis is etched into both our physical remains and collective memory.

Archaeology is helping us unearth that history in nuanced ways, offering a more compassionate understanding of the disease’s true impact and reminding us of the importance of equitable access to healthcare today. By tracing syphilis’s past, we gain insights into human suffering across time and the ongoing need to confront stigma in the fight against infectious diseases.

References and further reading:

Studies on syphilis skeletal pathology and its archaeological detection
Historical accounts of syphilis outbreaks in Renaissance Europe
Research on mercury treatments and archaeological soil analysis
Public health history related to sexually transmitted infections

This article synthesizes insights from archaeological and historical research, highlighting how unexpected clues from the past illuminate one of humanity’s oldest and most persistent diseases.